《信息管理英语——信息管理环境》是研究信息管理的一个重要导论课本。它主要研究信息和信息管理的定义和范围，以及影响信息管理的诸多因素。编者精选了24篇具有代表性的、出自名家之手的文章。为了帮助读者更好地掌握文章内容，编者还在每篇文章之后加注，省得读者查询有关资料。编者还依据文章内容设计了三种练习，帮助读者掌握内容，根据上下文学习一些词的含义，并指导学生进行调研和练习写作调研报告。

Part 1 Information and Information Mangement:Scopes and Definitions
Lesson 1 What Information Is:Definitions and Some Aspects of it
Lesson 2 Information Managemet:Definitions and Some Aspects of It
Part II Information Management Environment:Social Approach
Lesson 3 The Information Society
Lesson 4 The Post-Information Age
Lesson 5 Information Age
Lesson 6 Information Seeking
Lesson 7 Information Policies:An Introduction
Lesson 8 Information policies:Copyright Catechism
Lesson 9 What Is an Information Professional?
Lesson 10 Riding the Information Revlution:Transition from Paper to Electronic Communication
Part III Information Management Environment:Organixational Approach
Lesson 11 Organizatioal Communication:Commentary
Lesson 12 How to Manage Information Flow In Organizations:Practical Information Policies
Lesson 13 Systems Analysis
Lesson 14 Introduction to Local Area Networks
Part IV Information Management Environment:Immediate Approach
Part V Information Management Environment:Academic Approach
Part VI Key to Exerciese II and III

How the Computer Works

l Technical services staff should have some familiarity with how computers work. Just as you don't need to be an auto mechanic to drive an automobile, you don't need to be a computer expert to use today's machines. Knowing a little about how computers work , however, can improve your ability to take the greatest advantage of the equipment's capabilities. lt may also mean you will be able to solve a few problems on your own.

2 This section provides a brief overview of computers and how they work. Readers with experience using computers in a library or elsewhere may proceed to some advanced knowledge about the computer,but beginners must be first of all familiar with a few operations performed by computers:

Input. Computers receive data needed for carrying out the processing functions.

Arithmetic. Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing,although simple functions, are a key element in computing.

Logical Processing. The computer compares data to determine if one value is less than, equal to, or greater than another value.

Output. The information generated by the arithmetic and logical processing is made available for use.

Storage. Electronic data are stored on internal or external devices for future use.

3 These operations are simple; in fact anyone who can add, subtract, multiply, and divide could do them. What makes the difference is the computer's ability to perform the functions incredibly quickly and reliably.

4 In order to carry out its operations, a computer must have data to

process. Data are numbers, words, and images suitable for processing by the computer to produce information. People can use this information for a variety of purposes. The processing of data in a computer has several names, but the two most common are information processing and electronic data processing" (EDP)

5 EarIier we outlined how adding basic bibliographic data to a library database allows staff in different departments to use the same information for different activities. You could have the computer create a recent acquisitions list and arrange the items in alphabetical order by author. It could also generate separate subject lists using the same material or produce a list of books, in call number order, that are in high demand.

6 Computer systems involve using equipment (hardware) and detailed sets of instructions for the computer to follow (programs, or software). First, we will discuss computer hardware, which consists of four components: input units; output units; processor unit; auxiliary storage units.

7 The most common input device today is the computer keyboard, which is somewhat like a typewriter keyboard. Two major additions to the computer keyboard are the function keys and a second set of number keys arranged like a calculator keyboard. Magnetic tapes can also input data. In the past, punched cards served as input devices.

Another form of input is electronic transfer, one computer "talking"

directly to another computer. Downloading is a form of electronic

transfer.

8 Currently, scanner technology is available with units that will input both graphic and textual material. Most of the scanners available as of l993 require some experience to use effectively. Graphics scanning is reasonably easy, as is modifying the scanned image. Textual scanning can be problematic if the computer cannot "read" a particular typeface. Undoubtedly, in the next few years these systems will become more accurate and easier to use. Perhaps in time you will not have to key in any data that are available in printed form.

9 The heart (or perhaps brains) of the computer is the processing unit, which has two elements. The central processing unit (CPU) is where the adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and logical functions take place. It follows the directions given to it by the main memory unit. The main memory stores the instructions the computer will follow as well as the data the CPU will process. The larger the main memory, the more instructions and data it can hold at any one time. Computer buffs refer to computer memory in terms of bytes of RAM (random access memory), such as 640K or 64MB.

l0 Output from a computer takes several forms, ranging from printed reports to color graphics. The two most common output units are the printer and the television-like screen called a cathode ray tube (CRT), or terminal. Another form of output is electronic transfer-data is transferred from one computer to another. Most PCs or terminals have both output units; several may share a single printer. Note that a terminal is only a CRT and keyboard; it must have a cable connection to a CPU in another location.

ll Auxiliary storage units are essential because they store all the

instructions and data not currently used by the computer's main memory. For PCs the two most common storage devices are the floppy disk (another common name is diskette) and the hard disk. Floppy disks store data as magnetic spots on a protected oxide--coated plastic sheet. (Because the data are magnetic in nature, you must not expose the disks to another magnetic source or you may have the data equivalent of scrambled eggs. Also, you should handle the 5 l /4" floppy with care because the paper or plastic cover over the plastic storage medium is not very strong. It also is susceptible to dust and other particle damage, so keeping the diskettes in storage boxes will extend their useful life. ) Floppy disks now come in two sizes, 5 l/4" and 3 l /2"; perhaps somewhat surprisingly, the smaller is a later development in floppy disk technology and thus reflects the trend toward smaller, faster, and more powerful computers. The next generation

in storage technology, the high--capacity flexible disk drive, is a com-

bination of magnetic and optical storage. Called optical floppies or

"flopticals," this format can store l4 times more data than the famil-

iar 1. 44MB floppy.

l2 Hard disks are oxide metal platters sealed inside a special housing

to ensure a dust-free environment and are often placed in the same

case that houses the CPU. You never handle a hard disk unless you

are installing or removing it from the computer. Hard disks can store

large quantities of information (40, 80, l00, or more megabytes).

l3 Just what do megabyte and kilobyte mean? These terms relate to computer power and memory size and the way a computer operates.Computers operate with electrical pulses that are either "on" or "off". Thus, a computer with a 4MB RAM and a 100MB hard disk has a main memory capable of handling 4,096,000 bytes for processing purposes and l02, 400, 000 bytes of auxiliary storage. This is a fairly common PC configuration today, one that is even available in the compact laptop computer but seldom available in PCs manufactured just five years ago.

14 Without detailed instructions, computers are worthless. Computer programs, or software, provide the needed instructions. Today most computer users do not need to know how to write a program because companies produce a wide variety of software packages. Knowing how to program is helpful for troubleshooting and adapting packaged software to local needs. However, lt ls not a necessity, especially because many companies provide a help line telephone number.Most producers of the turnkey (ready to use out of the box) library systems also provide telephone assistance if either the hardware or software causes problems.

l5 Software other than packages designed to assist programmers falls into one of two types: operating systems and applications. Operating systems control the computer's CPU. They serve as traffic polic; they direct the activities and act as an interfacc between the user and the CPU. They coordinate all the hardware components as well as the basic operation of the CPU. They maintain the overall system.They act as very fast filing clerks storing and retrieving data as needed and keeping track of how much storage space is available. Anyone who regularly uses a computer has seen the dreaded message from the operating system, "WARNlNG: Insufficient disk space available."This message appears just as you are about to save your work. At that point, you hope you can quickly find a floppy disk that does have room available. The last major function operating systems perform is

to provide the mechanism to let you load an applications program into

the main memory. Without an operating system you cannot run an applications program.

l6 One important point about operating systems and computers is that they are dependent on one another. That is, certain types of hardware will only work with a certain operating system; for example, MS-DOS PCs use the DOS (disk operating system) softwaree.Thus, when you buy a computer you have no choice in what operating system it will use. That, along with the basic mechanical attributes of the hardware, can determine the applications programs you can use. An example is MAC- versus IBM-compatible systems,

l7 Most of us are more interested in the applications software. Ap-lications range from computer games to highly complex computer aided design and graphics programs. There are five common types of applications programs for the personal computer: 1 ) word processing, 2) electronic spreadsheets, 3 ) computer graphics, 4 ) databate and file management, and 5) electronic mail/ communications.

l8 For many people word processing (wp) is the only applications. program needed. They use it to write letters, memos, and reports.In a library situation with just one PC and a word-processing package, you can begin to automate your work. Many of the packages have a sort-and-merge capability. With that type of package you can set up vendor files with mailing addresses and create form letters, and the computer will print out individual letters. You can use the same capability to create a periodicals holdings list, and if you include subject information in the file, you can produce lists of periodicals for various subjects. Adding or deleting titles as your subscription list changes is easy, and generating a new current subjects list is no problem; the computer does most of the work. Many of the word-processing packages now on the market include a calendar-planner module that, among other things, can serve as your electronic

appointment book.

l9 Spreadsheets perform calculations on the numbers entered. They are useful planning tools that can provide data to help answer "what if" questions. "If we offered free online searching, what would happen to our work load?" By entering several different possibilities, as long as you give each factor a numerical value, the spreadsheet provides the different outcomes. Note that the spreadsheet can only provide additional information for you to think about; it cannot decide which alternative is best. Because the computer can quickly calculate many possibilities, you can consider more variations. These applications are excellent for forecasting and tracking trends in activities such as circulation, expenditure of funds, and service activities. Although not designed as bookkeeping systems, most will work satisfactorily for keeping track of expenditures and current balances. We use such a package in our library for tracking office supplies and other purchases. These packages are also effective for maintaining statistics, such as from circulation, and they will do most of the necessary

calculations for you.

20 Computer graphics programs are becoming very sophisticated and produce excellent images when used with a laser printer. ln a library, the use of graphics can help communicate information, and today's graphics packages allow you to produce professional-looking material. If you are lucky enough to have a color printer, the results will be most satisfactory.

2l Database and file management packages allow you to organize output data in a variety of ways. Many of the current word-processing packages do have some of this capability, but they lack the power and sophistication of database management package. These packages provide greater possibilities for manipulating the data. They also have greater flexibility in data entry in that you define what the file should look like. Such packages could serve as the basis for a small online catalog or for an index to a specialized collection (picture file, poetry etc. ). In a small library, if only one software package is available the database application will provide the most utility when it comes to automating library activities.

22 lndividual computers are valuable tools; however, linked together in a network, they collectively become even more useful. You can link computers by using telephone lines and modems or, as is common within a building, by hard-wiring the units to one another (using special computer cables). Normally when a library purchases an integrated automated system, cables are run (pulled) to connect the central computer (host) and all the output devices throughout the library. Networked computers can share data and, if an electronic mail (e-mail) component is part of the system, leave messages in electronic mailboxes. Such packages allow you to send and receive messages to and from any unit on the network any time. The unit does not

have to be in use to receive a message. When you start up ("boot")a

computer with an e-mail system, you will see a scrcen indicating how

many messages are in the unit's mailbox. ln time, when everyone in

the library has a networked computer or terminal at his or her desk

e--mail may completely replace the office memo. Although e--mail is

itself does not create a permanent record, you can print out a paper copy. The legal status of electronic files is still uncertain at this time. so there is still a need to retain paper copies of many documents.

23 We should mention integrated application packages before concluding our discussion of software. As the name may suggest, these are programs that provide several features from the previous types.The most common combination is word processing, spreadsheet database, and graphics capability. You have the advantage of moving back and forth between the functions even if you do not have a workstation computer. The integrated package lets you see and use data from several program parts at the same time. In our four-function example package, the screen would consist, when you needed it, of two, three, or even four sections (windows), one showing your word--processing work, one with your spreadsheet, another with

database material, and one with your graphics. If you were preparing

a statistical report and you wanted to include graphs to help people vi-

sualize the statistical information, an integrated package would certainly make the work go more quickly. An integrated package turns a PC into a mini--workstation.

24 Window packages are also available. These packages allow you to switch back and forth between application programs. There are,however, several factors that limit the suitability of these packages in many situations. To take full advantage of a window package you need a fast computer (a 386 or 386sx microprocessor with a minimum of 4 MB memory). You also need a mouse, a handheld device that allows you to move the cursor around the CRT screen more quickly than when using the keyboard's arrow keys. Generally, window

packages look best on a high-resolution color monitor (video graphic

array [VGA] ). Disk space is also a factor; most packages require 5 to 7MB of hard disk storage space. And finally, learning to use the packages takes time. Nevertheless, windows appear to be the future direction for personal computing work.